In this episode of The Sentinel, we honor and celebrate the Two-Spirit community. We uncover the origins of the term ‘Two-Spirit’ and how Native people acknowledge and reclaim this tradition and identity today. We listen to recorded excerpts from the Two-Spirit Panel held at the 2025 NCAI Executive Council Winter Session, where our panelists and guests discussed the community's current challenges and how tribal leaders can advocate for their Two-Spirit relatives.

Honoring the Two-Spirit Community

Today, Native people serve in the United States military at five times the national average yet are often overlooked and underrepresented in policy-making decisions affecting veterans as a whole. In this episode of 

, we mark the 30th anniversary of the NCAI Veterans Committee, established in 1995 to advocate for and address the unique needs of Native veterans.

We are honored to be joined by the three current Co-Chairs of the NCAI Veterans Committee and NCAI Executive Director Larry Wright, Jr. Together, they reflect on their military service, share their experiences as Native veterans, and discuss the Committee’s vision and priorities for the future.

Honoring Traditions of Service: The NCAI Veterans Committee

, we explore the Land Back movement, an effort led by American Indian and Alaska Native people to restore traditional homelands to Tribal Nations. The goal of this movement is not only to reclaim property stolen from Native communities, but to restore stewardship and sovereignty over ancestral lands. While we share recent successes and highlights, we also examine the deep historical roots and ongoing struggles of this movement.

Raphael Wahwassuck, Tribal Council Member and Tribal Historic Preservation Officer for the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation, joins us to discuss the recent return of 1,500 acres of land, remedying two centuries of injustice and dispossession for his tribe. He shares the long history of this issue for his tribe and how other Tribal Nations can learn from the Prairie Band Potawatomi’s advocacy and experience on this issue.

Land Back: Restoring Sovereignty, Remedying Injustice

, we commemorate the 50th Anniversary of the Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act. Enacted on January 4, 1975, this pivotal piece of legislation marked a major shift in federal Indian policy. It authorized Tribal Nations to enter into contracts with the federal government for the provision of essential services. The goal was to shift control and autonomy of those services from Washington, D.C., to the tribes themselves. Join us as we explore the history and ongoing significance of this legislation to Indian Country.

The ISDEAA: 50 Years of Empowering Tribal Nations

Part two of Episode 20 continues our exploration of NCAI’s international advocacy work and examines further how NCAI’s advocacy for Indigenous Peoples on the global stage ties into its larger mission of promoting tribal sovereignty.

In this expanded conversation led by Rochelle Morgan-Verdin, NCAI’s Policy Lead for International Issues and citizen of the United Houma Nation, we hear from two additional experts who have been deeply involved in the organization’s advocacy for decades. They shed light on the history of NCAI’s international work, what progress is being made today, and what we can expect in the years to come.

Advocacy on the International Stage: The NCAI International Committee, Part 2

In this episode of The Sentinel, we explore NCAI’s commitment to international advocacy work. NCAI has recognized that its mission of promoting tribal sovereignty must extend beyond the borders of the United States and include the representation, participation and voices of Indigenous Peoples on a global stage.

Join us for a thought-provoking discussion led by Rochelle Morgan-Verdin, NCAI’s Policy Lead for International Issues and citizen of the United Houma Nation, the Co-Chairs of the recently formed NCAI International Committee, and key experts who have advocated for these issues for decades. Our listeners will hear from guests who are all steadfast advocates representing NCAI at international fora, carrying forth the organization’s mission globally.

Advocacy on the International Stage: The NCAI International Committee

In this episode of The Sentinel, we focus on the next generation of Native leaders. We are joined by three newly elected officers of the NCAI Youth Commission. The Commission was established in 1997 to provide a space for young tribal leaders to pinpoint issues of importance and strategize paths of action, then advocate for those issues on behalf of Native youth.

In this lively discussion facilitated by Alison Black, NCAI’s Youth Leadership and Training Coordinator, we hear firsthand from the officers about their respective backgrounds, what being on the Commission means to them, and what they hope to achieve during their terms of office. Our listeners will be inspired by their passion, their knowledge, their hope for the future, and their commitment to advancing the principles of tribal sovereignty both within NCAI and within their own communities.

The Emerging Leadership of Indian Country: The NCAI Youth Commission

Celebrating the First Year of the NCAI Foundation: Lessons in Partnership, Sovereignty, and Impact

By Greg Masten, Yurok, President of the NCAI Foundation

For the past 81 years, the National Congress of American Indians has been at the forefront of many issues that have impacted and shaped what we know as Tribal Nations today. The NCAI legacy was birthed out of necessity—to protect and advocate for our Tribes and Native Peoples. Our leaders of the past carried a sacred trust; they didn’t always want to be Tribal leaders, but in the face of injustice, they stood and fought, not for themselves, but for their families and their people. They hoped for a better future for their children, grandchildren, and future generations—and that hope fueled them to take action.

In continuation of NCAI’s mission, it is that same sacred trust that birthed the NCAI Foundation. We launched the NCAI Foundation on National Philanthropy Day. The Foundation was launched to meet the growing and urgent needs of Tribal Nations and to support Native Peoples in a way and at a scale that had not been done before. There are many complex issues impacting our Native communities. To solve them, we need true partnerships and impact investments requiring deeper strategies that center collaboration and integrate policy, programs, and services at local, regional, and national levels.

It has been clear for some time that philanthropy needs to prioritize and invest more in Native American communities and Tribes. I believe there are many in the philanthropy sector that want to do good, but we need to do the good work, in a good way—based on understanding, with mutual respect and trust, and with an unwavering commitment.

This first year has been a time of laying foundations—literally and figuratively. The pandemic showed the world what we have always known: Tribal Nations are resilient, innovative, and deeply capable of managing their own affairs. Often, we’ve been under-resourced, and in spite of this, we’ve done so much good with so little. But what if we were properly resourced? During the pandemic, and for the first time, philanthropy responded with unrestricted funding, trusting Tribes to define and solve their own challenges. The NCAI Foundation emerged in this context, serving as a critical partner in amplifying these efforts, bridging gaps, and scaling solutions that honor Tribal sovereignty and Native knowledge.

The NCAI Foundation is more than a funding entity; it is the connection point for true collaboration. We have built on NCAI’s long history as a trusted partner with Tribes and continue the legacy of NCAI by working with our national sister organizations, inter-tribal organizations, and Native serving organizations. In the past, NCAI forged the way as a national re-granter, managing federal pass-through funds for decades to ensure they reach Tribal Nations directly. But today, we go further. The Foundation’s unique relationship with Tribes positions us as the conduit to scale investments across multiple areas, from environmental sustainability and digital sovereignty to economic development, education, public health, and other community impacts.

Our Equity and Sovereignty Framework anchors everything we do. Sovereignty is not just a guiding principle; it is the cornerstone of self-determination that leads to effective solutions. Through this lens, we reduce bureaucracy and honor the expertise of Tribal Nations, allowing them to apply resources in ways that work best for their communities. This first year has underscored the power of this approach—investments aligned with sovereignty have real and lasting impact.

While our work in this first year has laid strong foundations, there are still challenges ahead. Invisibility and underinvestment require ongoing efforts to build awareness, shift narratives, shift power dynamics, and expand opportunities. The NCAI Foundation has taken important steps by gathering data, amplifying Tribal voices, and addressing funding gaps that persist across Indian Country. We have shown that we are an effective convener and conduit for these investments as a trusted partner in ensuring they reach where they are most needed.

Looking ahead, the NCAI Foundation’s mission remains clear: to create an ecosystem for collaboration where policy, programs, and services align to support the distinct needs of NCAI, Tribal Nations and Native communities. This work is about more than addressing immediate challenges—it is about building the infrastructure and relationships that will sustain Tribal Nations and Native communities for generations to come.

We are only at the beginning of this journey, but already the lessons are clear. Tribal Nations and Native serving organizations are a good investment. Trust the decision making of their leadership. Invest in the work. Commit to long-term, unrestricted support. These principles have guided our first year and will continue to shape our path moving forward.

I am often asked, “What do you hope for the NCAI Foundation?” My hope is the same, for healthy, thriving Native American communities and Tribes—and that hope would inspire action where every foundation and corporate giving organization would acknowledge the first people of this nation by prioritizing their giving to include Native Peoples with a minimum of 3% of their annual giving. Some foundations have already taken this step, some as high as 50% of their portfolios now supporting Native American communities. Native American people have sacrificed so much for this nation. It is time to give back.

We invite you to join us as we continue this work. In uncertain times, we need to find our center and the world needs Native knowledge now, more than ever. We still carry that sacred trust, and we offer to share that same hope with you. Together, we can honor the old ways of collaboration and responsibility while building a future where Tribal Nations lead, thrive, and inspire a more just and sustainable world.



In this episode of the Sentinel, we mark the one-year anniversary of the NCAI Foundation, established in November 2023. The Foundation was created to unlock philanthropic dollars and build sustaining relationships supporting tribal sovereignty and Native self-determination. The NCAI Foundation is the only one of its kind that upholds these core principles while holding itself directly accountable to Tribal Nations. Funds raised go to support Native-led programs addressing challenges in a wide variety of issues such as food security, health, and education.

Greg Masten, President of the NCAI Foundation, and Dawn Knickerbocker, Vice President of Philanthropic Strategies, join us to report on the success of their efforts and the growth of the Foundation’s reach during their inaugural year. We also learn about the current landscape of Native philanthropy and the specific challenges that tribal communities and Native organizations face when accessing philanthropic dollars. Read the blog post below:

In this episode of The Sentinel, we examine the ongoing barriers and obstacles that Native voters face when accessing the polls. As we approach the 2024 elections, we examine NCAI’s legacy of advocacy on this subject. We also take a look at current advocacy and initiatives that will increase Native civic participation in the political process. We are joined by Dr. Aaron Payment (Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians), the campaign manager for NCAI’s nonpartisan, national 

 campaign. Dr. Payment examines the barriers that Native voters continue to face to this day, one hundred years after The Snyder Act granted their long overdue right to citizenship. Join us to learn why this is an issue of critical importance not only today but also in the future.

Native Vote: Supporting a Sovereignty Ticket in 2024 and Beyond

In this episode of The Sentinel, we uncover the devastating effects that dams have on Indian Country. The construction and maintenance of dams cause flooding of sacred sites, displacement of people from their ancestral lands, and permanent disruption of the ecosystem and fish populations. These irreparable consequences result in the loss of traditional ways, vital resources, and quality of life in tribal communities. Join us and take a look back at the history of NCAI’s advocacy efforts against dam construction on tribal lands, which began shortly after the organization’s founding in 1944 and has continued through today. 

This episode also features an interview with Corrine Sams, elected Board of Trustees Member for the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation and Treasurer of the Columbia River Intertribal Fish Commission. Sams discusses recent progress in the Pacific Northwest as Tribal Nations defend their sovereignty and advocate for the removal of dams and restoration of salmon populations in the region. She also sheds light on the Biden administration’s recent report on the detrimental effects of dams in the Columbia River Basin, marking the first time the federal government has acknowledged the decades of harm tribal communities have endured. Listen now to learn more about the impacts of dams on Native people, the environment, and their intrinsic rights.

Eroding Sovereignty: The Devastating Impacts of Dams on Tribal Communities

As the growth of technology permeates every aspect of our lives, the issue of Tribal Digital Sovereignty is of crucial importance now more than ever. Join us on this episode of The Sentinel as we hear from experts who will help shed light on this subject.

Listeners will learn about the recently launched Center for Tribal Digital Sovereignty, a partnership between NCAI and Arizona State University’s American Indian Policy Institute, the first of its kind in Indian Country. We hear from Geoff Blackwell and Matt Rantanen, experts in the field of Tribal Digital Sovereignty, who help us examine the unique challenges that Native communities face with governing their own data, information, and technology.

This episode provides a deeper understanding of the intersection of technology and Tribal sovereignty, why it matters so much now, and why it is one of the most significant challenges facing the future of Indian Country.

Empowering Tribal Nations in the 21st Century: NCAI and the Center for Tribal Digital Sovereignty



The survival of American Indian and Alaska Native languages is essential to the success of tribal communities and Native ways of life. However, without urgent and sustained intervention, far too many Native languages risk extinction within the coming decades. In this episode of The Sentinel, we highlight the urgency of this issue, and examine the creative and innovative solutions that many tribal communities are undertaking to counteract language loss.

First, we hear from Daniel Golding (Fort Yuma Quechan Indian Tribe), producer of the documentary “

,” which aired on the PBS network as part of the “Native America” series. Golding sheds light on the inherent challenges of revitalizing Native languages and his own unique personal perspective as he embarked upon learning the Quechan language.

Next, we present segments from the “Native Language Preservation” panel discussion held at the 2024 NCAI Mid Year Convention & Marketplace in Cherokee, North Carolina. Representatives from the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, Cherokee Nation, Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians, and Fort Yuma Quechan Indian Tribe participated in a lively discussion at the Third General Assembly. Panelists recounted the challenges of language preservation, but also shared strategies, projects and techniques that have resulted in successful outcomes for their tribal communities.

Historically, indigenous communities across the globe have passed down their languages from generation to generation. However, colonization and cultural assimilation have jeopardized these languages, pushing them to the brink of extinction. When a language fades, identity

is lost. Preserving languages is critical if we want to promote cultural diversity and richness. Many Native communities rely on oral transmission, rather than written, to pass on knowledge, customs and traditions. As language becomes jeopardized, so does the cultural transmission that goes with it.

Throughout its history, NCAI has been instrumental in the effort to preserve Native languages. The organization’s advocacy has taken on a number of forms including: supporting legislation to protect traditional ways of speaking, calling for increased funding for language education and immersion programs, and formally recognizing that native languages are in a state of emergency.

For example, in 1990, NCAI endorsed the Native American Languages Act, the first major piece of legislation to preserve, promote, and protect Native languages. By the mid-1990s, NCAI began using the resolutions process to further this mission. At the Mid Year Conference in Spokane, Washington, NCAI leaders stated that “the United States government actively suppressed our native languages, directly contributing to their dramatic decline.”

Then, NCAI called upon the federal government to increase funding for Tribal Nations for language recovery and teaching programs. The membership also adopted a resolution addressing Native youth and calling for development and funding of Native language immersion programs in pre-schools, elementary schools, and secondary schools throughout Indian Country. NCAI also established a Native Language Task Force that meets twice annually.

More recently, at the 2024 NCAI Mid Year Convention and Marketplace held in Cherokee, North Carolina, attendees heard from Native language speakers and advocates throughout the meeting sessions. They were able to watch a screening of the documentary “

”, which aired on PBS as part of the highly acclaimed “Native America” series. Then, a breakout session conducted by the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians delved into their efforts to preserve and revitalize their language. Lastly, the Third General Assembly hosted a panel on Native Language Preservation featuring a lineup of speakers from the Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians, the Cherokee Nation, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, and the Fort Yuma Quechan Indian Tribe.

Out of these discussions came a common theme. While significant progress has been made towards preserving Native languages in recent years, there are still challenges associated with maintaining languages across generations. As younger generations are exposed to other languages through the Western education system and media, the usage of native languages declines. And when communities have limited resources, support and funding for language revitalization efforts, these challenges become even more difficult to overcome.

NCAI recognizes that the preservation of Native languages is not just a linguistic issue, but a basic need to uphold cultural diversity and respect the rights of American Indian and Alaska Native peoples. When a language fades away, it is not only words that are lost, but an entire way of life and understanding of the world.

Beyond Words: The Power Of Native Language Revitalization

The Native American Graves Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) addresses the treatment and repatriation of cultural items, objects of cultural patrimony, sacred objects, and human remains. Passed into law in 1990 as a result of decades of NCAI advocacy, this legislation goes a long way towards recognizing and respecting the sacred, religious, and cultural rights of American Indian and Alaska Native people. It was considered long overdue at the time of its passage and has faced significant hurdles since then.



One of the key provisions of NAGPRA establishes requirements that federal agencies and any institutions that receive federal funding, make account of any human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural patrimony that they have in their possession. The law states that they must be then repatriated to the appropriate Tribal Nations, to be cared for, and to be honored according to tribal religious practices. 



Of critical importance is that NAGPRA also includes steps for consultation and collaboration between federal agencies, museums, and Tribal representatives and communities. One of its goals is to foster communication based on respect for culture and cultural sensitivity. This process is meant to bring healing and reconciliation to Native communities. Likewise, it calls for both museums and cultural institutions to address and take stock of the historical trauma associated with the exploitation and desecration of sacred objects, burial sites, and human remains that were stolen for their own benefit.



Delving back into the NCAI archival records, we learn that the organization was a key advocate for repatriation legislation long before NAGPRA was adopted. For example, In 1986 at the Annual Convention in Phoenix, Arizona, NCAI condemned the Department of Interior policy on human remains and sacred objects that they had developed without any tribal consultation or input. Organization leaders called on Congress to create tribally focused legislation, and to “hold hearings to allow the Indian Community to present its views and recommendations.”



Then, immediately prior to the passage of NAGPRA, NCAI adopted a Resolution at the 1990 Executive Council Winter Session calling upon Congress to adopt repatriation legislation because, “the sanctity of the dead for American Indians and Alaska Natives has never been respected by the dominant, non-Indian society as evidenced by the untold thousands of deceased Native Americans that have been dug up from their final resting places and because respect for the dead is a basic human right that is fundamental to all cultures, societies and religions…”.



Working in coalition with its partners such as the Native American Rights Fund and Association on American Indian Affairs, NCAI continued its unwavering advocacy until NAGPRA was finally passed into law in November 1990. Unfortunately, despite its historic significance, NAGPRA has faced major challenges in its implementation. Many claim that the original legislation does not go far enough to address past wrongdoings, nor does it take into account the challenges of the repatriation process both in terms of legal and ethical considerations. The quest for successful implementation of NAGPRA has dragged on for 34 years.



In recent months, however, there have been some promising developments. In an April 2023 press release, NCAI commended the ongoing bipartisan effort of the U.S. Senate that was underway at the time for ensuring that, “Native American ancestral remains and cultural items are returned to their rightful owners as an essential first step towards acknowledging the historic and ongoing wrongs inflicted upon the American Indian and Alaska Native community.” In August 2023, the National Park Service announced $3.4 million in grants to 16 Tribal Nations and 28 museums to assist in the consultation, documentation, and repatriation of ancestral remains and cultural items. This is the largest amount since the grant program began.



Lastly, on December 6, 2023, the Department of the Interior announced the outcome of that work—a series of new, stricter regulations concerning the implementation of NAGPRA. The new rules are considered long overdue and are a result of Nation-to-Nation consultation. They strengthen the force of the law and include systematic processes for returning human remains, funerary objects, and objects of cultural patrimony, setting the timeline for compliance at 5 years. The goal of the regulations is to give Tribal Nations more authority in the repatriation process. Museums and federal agencies now must obtain free, prior, and informed consent from Tribal Nations and descendants before displaying or conducting research on any human remains or cultural items. In addition, museums must now be more publicly transparent about their collection holdings that are subject to NAGPRA.



News coverage across the country has reported on the response to the new NAGPRA changes announcing that museums and cultural institutions have either covered or removed their exhibits relating to Native history. For example, The American Museum of Natural History in New York closed two halls dedicated to the Eastern Woodlands and Great Plains tribal cultures. Sean Decatur, President of the Museum, explained, “The Halls we are closing are vestiges of an era when museums did not respect values, perspectives and indeed the shared humanity of indigenous peoples.”



Other institutions have responded accordingly and have removed objects on display as they await consultation with Tribal Nations. We have yet to completely see how these new regulations will play out. But the hope is they will fulfill the original intent of the legislation and not result in further delays. Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland stated, “The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act is an essential tool for the safe return of sacred objects to the communities from which they were stolen. Among the updates we are implementing are critical steps to strengthen the authority and role of Indigenous communities in the repatriation process…. Finalizing these changes are an important part of laying the groundwork for the healing of our people.”



As time goes on, NCAI will continue to advocate for the complete implementation of NAGPRA and repatriation of ancestral remains, and sacred and cultural objects, so that wrongdoings inflicted upon American Indian and Alaska Native communities are recognized and healing can begin.

 signals a rebirth of NCAI’s oldest and most continuously published membership newsletter, 

. Published for the first time in the 1940s, 

 focused on NCAI membership matters, events, people and policy issues. This newly conceived version will, instead, take a look backwards with a nod to the present. Each post will feature stories about past events, programs, and people, as well as articles on NCAI leaders throughout the years and new developments and discoveries in the archival collections.

Drawing on NCAI’s rich digital and physical archival collections, it is our hope that you will return each month to learn more about the organization’s 80 years of advocacy for Indian Country and, as a result, will also remain informed about what is happening at NCAI today.

Healing Through Restoration: The Native American Graves Repatriation Act

This legislation has gone a long way to support pay equity for women but there is still a persistent and pervasive gap across all demographic sectors of women. For example, recent research has shown that the pay gap has been closing for White women; however, for Native women, it remains at the lowest of any demographic. In fact, according to the Institute for Women’s Policy Research, as of 2021 Native women working full time only earned 59 cents as compared to white men. For all employed Native women, the statistic is even more dismal: 51 cents to every dollar, emphasizing the need for an intersectional approach to pay disparities. These figures vary across Tribal Nations and communities, and are further compounded by the lack of reliable statistical data in tribal communities.


So what does this 59-cent figure mean for Native Women? Each year, Equal Pay Days are marked for various groups. In 2023, Native Women’s Equal Pay Day was marked on November 30. This date signifies the time in the year to which Native women would have to work to catch up to the earnings of their white male counterparts. Simply put, that means it takes almost a full additional year of work for Native women to achieve salary parity. Looking more broadly, the wage gap will typically cost a Native American woman nearly $1 million over a lifetime (roughly 40 years) of work. Moreover, it unfortunately is also one of the slowest stagnating gaps, which has shown little signs of narrowing over the last decade.



While this issue is often framed as a women’s issue, it’s important to recognize that the pay gap affects everyone, not just women. According to the National Partnership for Women and Families, 64% of Native households are headed by women; and Native women are more often than not the primary breadwinners and caregivers for their families. These caregiving responsibilities often limit women’s mobility in search of better, higher-paying jobs. Understanding this larger context makes this a broader family issue that affects not only women but everyone in Native communities. It puts Native families on the front lines and at risk of poverty.



Much research has been done into why the pay disparity is so profound for Native women. The lasting impacts of colonization altered the status of women in traditionally matrilineal societies. Genocide, displacement, and misogyny are also contributing factors. The intersections of discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, and gender compound to create this deep pay divide amongst not only women and men, but amongst white women and women of color. Research shows that the average American woman makes 82 cents for every dollar an American man makes. In contrast, Native women only make 51 cents to that dollar, over 30 cents less. In addition, the U.S. has failed in its responsibility to collect accurate data relating to tribal communities, thereby making these pay figures difficult to track over time.


In addition to advocating for effective legislation to combat pay inequity, individual advocates and Native organizations such as NCAI recognize that other policies can contribute to strengthening the economic security of women. Promoting entrepreneurship among women and implementing mandatory paid leave policies are crucial for unlocking better opportunities. Additionally, access to affordable, high-quality child care is also important.

In his statement on the 15th Anniversary of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, President Biden marked the occasion by announcing new rules intended to help increase pay equity in the United States. He stated, “… my Administration will continue to call on Congress to pass the Paycheck Fairness Act, to increase pay transparency and strengthen our tools to fight sex-based pay discrimination.” 



Adopting “common sense” policies, the Biden administration then announced that the federal government is now prohibited from using the salary history of federal workers and contractors when determining pay for prospective hires. Office of Management and Budget Director Shalanda Young stated, “Relying on a candidate’s salary history can exacerbate pre-existing inequality in our pay structures and disproportionately impact women and workers of color.” This should be of some benefit to Native women, as they are employed in the federal workforce at twice the rate of their participation in the civilian labor force. Some progress is being realized, but we are still a long way off from true pay equality.

History of the NCAI Executive Council Winter Session

Advocacy in Action: The Origins of ECWS

Strength in Unity: NCAI’s Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Mutual Assistance

For this month’s blog post, we travel back in time to the Fourth Annual NCAI Convention held in Santa Fe, New Mexico, in December 1947 to share an inspirational story of unity and cooperation. The theme of this convention was “One for All, All for One, United We Endure”, an appropriate message carefully chosen by NCAI leaders to forge unity among the members of the young organization and also to position it for growth in the ensuing years.

Native Voting Rights and Civic Participation

In 1924, The Indian Citizenship Act was passed into law, extending citizenship to all Native people. However, even after the passage of this law, states still used a variety of means to disenfranchise American Indian and Alaska Native people. In 1928, Peter Porter and Rudolph Johnson, citizens of the Gila River Indian Community in Arizona, attempted to register to vote and were turned away. They were denied on the basis that they were not subject to the law of the state, because they lived on a reservation and did not pay state taxes. They were therefore considered “persons under guardianship” of the federal government, which according to the state’s logic, made them ineligible to vote.

Native Voting Rights and Civic Participation 

In 1924, The Indian Citizenship Act was passed into law, extending citizenship to all Native people. However, even after the passage of this law, states still used a variety of means to disenfranchise American Indian and Alaska Native people. In 1928, Peter Porter and Rudolph Johnson, citizens of the Gila River Indian Community in Arizona, attempted to register to vote and were turned away. They were denied on the basis that they were not subject to the law of the state, because they lived on a reservation and did not pay state taxes. They were therefore considered “persons under guardianship” of the federal government, which according to the state’s logic, made them ineligible to vote.



The two men filed a lawsuit– Porter v. Hall. The court ruled against the plaintiffs on the ground that they were under ‘federal guardianship’ and therefore disqualified from voting. Twenty years later in 1947, the case was challenged by two citizens of the Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation, Frank Harrison and Harry Austin. The plaintiffs were two of approximately 25,000 Native World War II veterans, who fought for and risked their lives for a country that did not accord them the equal rights they deserved. They filed a suit –Harrison v. Laveen– that was deliberated in the Arizona State Supreme Court.



As NCAI was founded in 1944, this pivotal court case is where we first see mention within archival records of the organization’s advocacy on voting rights. At the 1944 Inaugural Convention held in Denver, Colorado, NCAI adopted its first eighteen resolutions. In Resolution Number 6, “Indian Right of Franchise,” it called on authorities to remedy the situation in states where Indians found themselves disenfranchised. 



Following up on that resolution, in 1946 at the 3rd Annual Convention held in Oklahoma City, NCAI adopted Resolution Number 4, which called for the establishment of voting precincts on Indian Reservations; for all eligible voters to register to vote; and for candidates to be required to announce their position on issues of importance to American Indians.



Then, in 1948, NCAI issued an Amicus brief on the Harrison v. Laveen case, arguing that American Indians were 

 persons “under guardianship” and that the state’s logic was flawed. The state supreme court overturned the original Porter v. Hall case, and on July 15, 1948, Arizona Natives were granted the long overdue right to vote. Of the decision, Arizona Supreme Court Justice Levi Udall stated, “In a democracy, suffrage is the most basic civil right, since its exercise is the chief means whereby other rights may be safeguarded. To deny the right to vote, where one is legally entitled to do so, is to do violence to the principles of freedom and equality.”



At the time of the victory, NCAI’s attorneys celebrated, stating, “This smashing victory for civil rights of our oldest national minority will be a prelude to further advances of the forgotten men of our great Southwest. Indians, not only of the Navajo Tribe, but of many other Southwestern tribes, have been subjected to every sort of discrimination because they have no voice in government.”



Meanwhile, in neighboring New Mexico, another victorious decision in support of voting rights was handed down two weeks later. In the New Mexico case, NCAI General Counsels Felix S. Cohen and James S. Curry successfully argued for New Mexico Natives’ right to vote on behalf of Miguel Trujillo, a citizen of the Pueblo of Isleta, also a returning World War Two veteran.



The case, Trujillo v. Garley, was jointly sponsored by NCAI and the American Civil Liberties Union. The state attempted to argue that Mr. Trujillo was not eligible to vote because he did not pay taxes, a point that was easily refuted by his documented evidence. After the victory, NCAI congratulated its membership for financing the case, and for providing moral support to the heroic plaintiff who faced significant backlash and criticism for fighting for his basic rights.

In March 1949, there was a challenge to the decision. But it was again decided in favor of Mr. Trujillo. When commenting on the outcome, NCAI leaders stated, “This incident is a smashing demonstration of the power that Indian Voters have, if they want to use it. And it shows, too, that they have an efficient working organization, through which they can exercise that power, even on sudden notice.” This organization being referenced, of course, was NCAI.

One month later, when reflecting on the triumphant decision at the Phoenix Area Regional Conference, NCAI’s attorneys declared to the attendees, “The ringing victory will make your enemies think twice before they try anything of this kind again. It will show that from now on, the Indian will be a force to be reckoned with, a force which political leaders will be more anxious to win over as a friend than to oppose.”



Since that time, NCAI had adopted many resolutions calling for the elimination of Native voter disenfranchisement, urging the registration of eligible voters, and ensuring full and equal access to the polls. In addition, archival issues of the 

 featured comparisons of presidential candidates in regard to their stance on issues of importance to American Indian and Alaska Native people. In 1952, in advance of a presidential election, NCAI leaders urged Native voters to remember, 

–a statement that still rings true today and a recognition of the political power of Native people.

NCAI continued its advocacy for voting rights, marking milestones along the way, but recognizing that challenges persisted. It was not until the 1960s that the last state extended the right to vote to Native people. Even then, restrictive tactics such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and a variety of other methods, continued to disenfranchise Native voters. Today, the political landscape might look different, but unfortunately similar obstacles still remain.


Mining and Monuments: A Conversation about Tribal Lands

On August 8, 2023, President Biden took a significant step by designating Baaj Nwaavjo I’tah Kukveni in Northern Arizona as a national monument. The name is a combination of the Havasupai “Baaj Nwaavjo,” meaning where Indigenous people roam, and the Hopi phrase “I’tah Kukveni,” meaning our ancestral footprints. This designation, located near the Grand Canyon, serves as a protective shield against future uranium mining in the region.


This land is sacred to over a dozen Tribal Nations, and Indigenous groups have been working to safeguard it since the 1980s. The new monument protects approximately 900,000 acres and solidifies the 20-year ban on mining that President Obama initially put in place in 2012.


These and other recent efforts by the Biden Administration to protect lands from future mining prompted us to examine how NCAI’s historical advocacy has shaped current mining issues.



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